New Historicism, Cultural Studies (1980s-present)
Summary: This resource will help you begin the process of understanding literary theory and schools of criticism and how they are used in the academy.
Contributors:Allen Brizee, J. Case Tompkins--OWL Purdue University
Last Edited: 2010-04-21 08:25:37
Last Edited: 2010-04-21 08:25:37
It's All Relative...
This school, influenced by structuralist and post-structuralist theories, seeks to reconnect a work with the time period in which it was produced and identify it with the cultural and political movements of the time (Michel Foucault's concept of épistème). New Historicism assumes that every work is a product of the historic moment that created it. Specifically, New Criticism is "...a practice that has developed out of contemporary theory, particularly the structuralist realization that all human systems are symbolic and subject to the rules of language, and the deconstructive realization that there is no way of positioning oneself as an observer outside the closed circle of textuality" (Richter 1205).
A helpful way of considering New Historical theory, Tyson explains, is to think about the retelling of history itself: "...questions asked by traditional historians and by new historicists are quite different...traditional historians ask, 'What happened?' and 'What does the event tell us about history?' In contrast, new historicists ask, 'How has the event been interpreted?' and 'What do the interpretations tell us about the interpreters?'" (278). So New Historicism resists the notion that "...history is a series of events that have a linear, causal relationship: event A caused event B; event B caused event C; and so on" (Tyson 278).
New historicists do not believe that we can look at history objectively, but rather that we interpret events as products of our time and culture and that "...we don't have clear access to any but the most basic facts of history...our understanding of what such facts mean...is...strictly a matter of interpretation, not fact" (279). Moreover, New Historicism holds that we are hopelessly subjective interpreters of what we observe.
Typical questions:
- What language/characters/events present in the work reflect the current events of the author’s day?
- Are there words in the text that have changed their meaning from the time of the writing?
- How are such events interpreted and presented?
- How are events' interpretation and presentation a product of the culture of the author?
- Does the work's presentation support or condemn the event?
- Can it be seen to do both?
- How does this portrayal criticize the leading political figures or movements of the day?
- How does the literary text function as part of a continuum with other historical/cultural texts from the same period...?
- How can we use a literary work to "map" the interplay of both traditional and subversive discourses circulating in the culture in which that work emerged and/or the cultures in which the work has been interpreted?
- How does the work consider traditionally marginalized populations?
Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this theory:
- Michel Foucault - The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Sciences, 1970;Language, Counter-memory, Practice, 1977
- Clifford Geertz - The Interpretation of Cultures, 1973; "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight," 1992
- Hayden White - Metahistory, 1974; "The Politics of Historical Interpretation: Discipline and De-Sublimation," 1982
- Stephen Greenblatt - Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare, 1980
- Pierre Bourdieu - Outline of a Theory of Practice, 1977; Homo Academicus, 1984; The Field of Cultural Production, 1993
Cultural Criticism:
ReplyDeleteReligion and politics play many important roles in James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.” Joyce lived through the time of Parnell and Davitt’s period as Ireland’s political leader, and he discusses the political event in his novel by focusing on religion and politics as one topic and as two separate topics. In the beginning of the book, there is a discussion about whether or not the church should interfere with the political world as well as influence its members over the country’s political leader. The argument’s purpose is to prove the church has a strong opinion in politics, which allows the two subjects to work together. Joyce illustrates the effect of the church’s political opinion when Dante rips the backing off the brush for Parnell saying, “Parnell is a bad man” (Joyce 14). Dante heeds to the church’s political opinions, and as a result she tells Stephen, Parnell is a terrible man. Stephen begins to dislike the church for influencing the people’s vote against Parnell making him feel “small and weak” (14) because he did not understand politics. The church despises Parnell because of his adulterous relationship, yet Stephen shows his respect and devotion to the church when he can no longer deal with the agony and guilt he feels from leaving the church and committing sins. The Catholic Church is a great part of Ireland’s culture, and Stephen cannot walk away that easily.
Works Cited:
Joyce, James, John Paul. Riquelme, Hans Walter Gabler, and Walter Hettche. “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man: Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Contexts, Criticism.” New York: W.W. Norton, 2007. 14. Print.
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce is a product of a time in Ireland in which the old order was leaving and the new order was establishing itself. The presentation of the story within the novel has no plot, it is instead a series of events that share only a slight linear progression thus reflecting Ireland at the time that Joyce wrote the novel. The Irish people often had claimed that they were oppressed by a power far greater than a King or Queen; they had the weight of an empire on there shoulders. Often the Irish people were robbed of their potato crop to feed Great Britain’s Massive armies. This resentment is more than present in the novel; however the best example of it stems from a Christmas dinner in the Dedalus. Mr. Casey says of how “he had got those three cramped fingers making a birthday present for Queen Victoria”(24). These presents were often presented to the royals by the government though made of Irish blood. The people though as the 20th century progressed were in some cases allowed to gain more freedoms, and in other cases denied as in the times of old England. Thus Ireland itself had no “plot” and nothing was sure, so Joyce ingeniously put this societal dilemma into a novel. Thus when the novel is interpreted, the historian or reader must understand the culture and societal changes that were affecting Ireland at the time of the novels publication.
ReplyDeleteDuring the nineteenth century in Ireland, Irish Nationalism coursed through the heart of every true Irishman. Incorporating the fierce country pride within The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Joyce embeds not only politics but cultural quirks to reveal the uniqueness of the Irish culture. While the Irish are an English speaking community, their native tongue is the Gaelic language. In support of the nationalist movement and to further separate themselves from the oppressive English rule, Irishmen and women embraced their native tongue. Unlike his fellow countrymen, Stephen did not “learn Irish” (Joyce 205) because he does not see the point of paying in his “own life and person debts [his ancestors] made” (206). While refusing to learn a language might seem trivial, Stephen, by ignoring a major aspect of Irish culture, disregards and refuses to understand the necessity of his brethren to become free of English rule. This inability alienates Stephen from his friends and family who believe “a man’s country comes first” (206). Another quirk of the nineteenth century Irish culture was their devotion to the catholic religion. As a child, Stephen, like every good Irish boy, followed and learned good Christian etiquette, but as he grows older he refuses to “serve that in which [he] no longer believes, [the catholic religion]” (248). Therefore by throwing aside two important aspects of nineteenth century Irish nationalism, Stephen actually rejects his own culture.
ReplyDeleteThe culture of the period in which it was written is central to the themes in James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Written in a transitional period in Ireland’s history, protagonist Stephen Dedalus is caught in the middle of a clash between Irish patriotism and the stern tradition and lifestyle preached by the Catholic Church. Confused by the multiple opinions presented to him at home, Stephen feels unsure about where his allegiances are. From his father, Stephen hears that it is “fool’s advice” to “confine their attention to religion” (Joyce 26). Conflicting his father’s ideas, Stephen also hears from Dante that religion, not politics benefits society because “a priest would not be a priest if he did not tell his flock what is right and wrong” (Joyce 27). At a young age, Stephen is very impressionable and hearing two extremely polar opinions from those close to him leaves him in a tumultuous state. While many characters in literature who must travel a journey to maturation that includes several obstacles along the path, Stephen must begin his journey starting off a shaky foundation. Stephen’s family, representative of the shift in culture away from religion in Ireland during the time period, undoubtedly influences Stephen and most likely contributes to the intense confusion and struggle to find an identity that he endures.
ReplyDeleteTruly, culture plays an essential role in James Joyce’s, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Primarily, the location of the novel and the Catholic religion are used to advance the novel. More specifically, Stephen eventually comes to view Ireland as a kind of trap, a restraint that will make it impossible for him to live and thrive. Three major bonds threaten: family, nation, and the Church. For example, Stephen's family, increasingly destitute, is a source of frustration and guilt. As a result, he can do nothing to help them, and the continued ineptitude of his father exasperates Stephen. Although his father is an ardent nationalist, Stephen has great anxieties about Irish politics. Additionally, he finds Irish people fickle and ultimately disloyal; at one point, he says to a friend that the Irish have never had a great leader whom they did not betray or abandon. Consequently, he also rebels against the nature of activities like petition-signing and protest; in his mind, these activities amount to an abdication of independence. Thus, he leaves Ireland hoping to forge the new conscience of his race. Truly, The Church is perhaps the greatest constraint on Stephen. The teachings of the Church run contrary to Stephen's independent spirit and intellect. His sensitivity to beauty and the human body are not at all suitable to the rigid Catholicism in which he was raised. However, the Church continues to exert some small hold on him. Although he eventually becomes an unbeliever, he continues to have some fear that the Catholic Church might be correct. Despite his fears, he eventually chooses to live independently and without constraint, even if that decision sends him to hell. Therefore, specifically examining these particular aspects of the novel allow readers to understand the importance of culture in Joyce’s novel.
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